Diagnosis, Pathology, and Management of Pain in the Ischemic Hand: A Comprehensive Review.

Chronic limb-threatening ischemia of the upper extremity, resulting from pathologies like vasospasm, occlusion, trauma, or end-stage renal disease, is challenging to manage because of severe pain and morbidity. This review seeks to summarize the vascular anatomy of the upper extremity at risk for chronic limb-threatening ischemia, explain the pathophysiology of ischemic pain signaling, review diagnostic testing, and explore medical and surgical pain management options, as well as introduce avenues for future research.